Introduction on art and philosophy
This essay is not written as a result of scientific research. Although I have read a lot and tried to do justice to my sources, I have focused on my subjective insights. I used literature not strictly as theory, but as context. I regarded the works of others not as objective knowledge, but as subjective insights too. This essay therefore might sooner qualify as art and cannot strictly be labeled philosophy. Although in my perspective these two have a lot in common, there are important differences. Philosophy provides alternative perspective on thinking about the world. It does so by means of reflecting on tradition. Art provides alternative perspective on communicating about the world. Whereas philosophy has a central task in thinking and uses communication (only by means of language), art essentially is communication in every possible way.
Art is about sharing perspective on basis of subjective equality. Philosophy is also about sharing perspective, but it is authoritative. Art uses experience to communicate, not language. It is true that works of art are often material, but can also be conceptual or musical or emotional. That’s why the material aspects (that philosophy does never have) are not relevant in the following observations and analysis. As with philosophy, sharing perspective is the main objective. What distinguishes art from philosophy is the essential en central position of experience. Artistic experience can be naïve and it can be learned, but only in a subjective and individual way. Philosophy has to be learned and needs traditional context. It does not aim for subjective insights, but objective knowledge. Thus philosophy is not art but science. Having distinguished art and philosophy, the rest of this essay will focus on psychologically distinguishing art from culture and from entertainment. In the end I will answer the question: What is art?
I. Art and society
A. High art versus low art
In discussions about meaning and function of art in society there are two different sides. One side maintains that there is no normative difference between high or low art. This cultural relativist perspective sees everything as art, from folklore to avant-garde. Opponents of this anti-hierarchic and democratic view argue that some cultural outings have higher intrinsic quality than others, based on their traditional value. According to them, if a work of art is respected through the ages, it has proven its superior quality. One could say these normative traditionalists defend the existence of a cultural elite against democratic relativists that want to nivellize artistic experience. Relativists believe human beings to be equal, which to them implies that also their cultures and their experiences are equal. Elitists believe some to be more equal than others. Because it is very difficult to maintain, let alone prove, a difference in quality of experience, the discussion focuses on the work. I however will try to analyze the psychology of experience. Analyzing experience enables me to distinguish not between high or low culture, but between art and propaganda.
I will show that culture is always collective. When art is embedded in a certain culture it is robbed of its plural dimensions: one dominant reading is postulated as the meaning of the artwork. When art thus becomes canonic, a single interpretation prevails. Canonic art merely illustrates collective and self-induced stories. This is pure propaganda.
What is being presented here as discussion on the intrinsic quality of art, actually is a political struggle between democrats and aristocrats, between egalitarians and people that believe in genetic differences and superiority. Art for art’s sake nevertheless can be neither high nor low; merely it can be more or less universal. Art can be democratic or exclusive. Some books or films are new and attractive in different ways and produce a wide audience. Only when different experiences are possible, can we speak of a work of art. This might be an easily accessible work of art (all the better!), suited for a wide and diverse public, but still a work of art. Other works of art only speak to an experienced public that have defined their taste. These works of art are not ‘high art’ but rather exclusive art.
B. Art and politics
To free the definition of art from these political annotations, the field of discussion has to be brought back to the individual experience. My perspective on the function of art in society differs from both groups. I do not want to decide upon equality of group culture. I state that collective culture is always questionable. Politics can make some cultures dominant and culture can be used as a strategy to stay politically dominant. Individuals can use cultural assimilation to adept and include themselves in the dominant group. Thus artistic preferences can be used to define cultural or political groups.
One can differentiate between social classes, these groups will have their cultural differences, maybe even more so than financial ones. The nouveau riche often are culturally similar to working class people, they only have more money. They will wear more expensive clothes, but not classical clothing. They will pay €300,- or more for a pair of jeans, whereas aspiring cultural elitists or descendants of aristocratic families who do not have much money left, will be likely to spend the same amount of cash on a suit. The same goes with cars, houses etcetera. Group culture is not much more than style or fashion. Consequently one can maintain that what is marked as high culture is merely dominant style, commonly accepted as superior. So we see that, as Bourdieu teaches us, there are different ways in which one can be powerful. One can have a lot of money, one can have education and Bildung (the privilege of belonging to the culturally dominant group) and one can be in the possession of al lot of respectable friendships and a network of acquaintances. So there are different types of Kapital: financial, cultural and social. These commodities used to be reserved for one group only and be combined in a single person, a member of the elite. But in our postmodern age one can be a member of a cultural elite without having any money or be a member of a financial elite without the knowledge and customs that are recognized as highly cultural or rather classical. As with aspiring to a financial career, the cultural ladder to be climbed can be full of competition. Aspiring philosophes in French enlightenment were all ‘poor devils’ wanting to get ahead through education and intellectualism. Our Zeitgeist favors the idea of money making through corporate business, not individual competition. These days money is to be made through a career and getting ahead in a corporation. So this means a decline in aspiration to become part of a cultural elite. Scarce government money is used to keep the cultural elite alive, competition has fallen back.
C. Cultural absolutism
The broad way of looking at art that derives from cultural relativism, has little to do with philosophy of the arts. To be able to propose my definition of art, it is necessary to differentiate between (political) culture and art. In the next chapter I will above that strictly divide entertainment from art. The main route I will take to define art in this manner is through ‘philosophic psychology and sociology’. I do not maintain using scientific methods of psychology or sociology, I merely explore psychological and social insights to differentiate between culture and art and between entertainment and art. A central role in making my distinctions is played by the contradiction between collective and individual experience.
There are two ways in which an experience can be collective; external and internal. When an individual participates in the festivity of a group, the experience is externally directed and group based. If experience is personal, but objective, it is internally directed, but still collective, because it confirms the norm. I will elaborate on this in the next chapter.
In making a clear distinction between culture and art, I mark culture as absolute. I place art outside the absolute sphere of groups. Art is relative, it’s about communication, about relating to each other. In day to day life I observe the individual experiencing (sub)culture as fixed. We know it slowly changes but we do not experience this. The individual can maneuver between different collectively fixed cultures, thereby creating a multifaceted or ‘postmodern’ identity. This identity however is not subjective but subjected – when conformed and conformed and conformed – to a plural cultural environment. Although boundaries between subcultures are vague, their content is comparatively fixed. The collective is objectivistic in an absolute way, whereas the individual can be a subject in a relative way. To become a subject, one has to get into personal relations. Artworks serve to make possible a personal relationship from subject to subject between artist and member of the public. Relations from individuals to groups lead to slightly schizophrenic or depersonalized identities. Psychological experience of being part of a culture is absolute. Art is a means to escape this fixed collective environment. In this sense art cannot be experienced by the individual as high or low, but only on a personal and subjective level.
D. Subjectivism and emancipation
Jacques Rancière will probably maintain that art is inherently political precisely because it can be more or less exclusive, precisely because it asks the public to stretch their perspective. He will do so from the premise that art’s value is collective. Rancière sees individual experience as part of a collective whole. Because group identity is restrictive to the possibilities of the individual and art emancipates (by influencing collectively induced perspective to develop independently and individually), its aesthetic function in society should be politic. I maintain that it is because art emancipates the subject, because it frees the individual from collective boundaries, that art ceases to be political. Artistic experience removes the individual from the political arena and speaks to subconscious, subjective and spiritual corners of the self. Thereby it places the individual in a sphere of exclusive interpersonal communication. Not society is the context of artistic experience but the intimate.
With art, the most important aspect that defines it from intrapersonal meditative or spiritual experience is the next step to be taken, a productive one: via a body, a work of art, communication takes place. Artistic experience is interpersonal, but highly individual experience. Romantic Marxist psychologist Erich Fromm concludes in his work ‘Escape from freedom’ that the collective is always oppressive and the only ways to stay true to oneself are via true love and through spontaneous creation. With ‘spontaneous’ he means out of free will. One can parallel these two individual courses of action as relating the self to the other. With love there is made a direct personal connection between two individuals. With spontaneous creation there is made a personal connection via a product. In romantic Marxist perspective one gives something of oneself to the other, who can return the favor. In capitalistic view an exchange of pecuniary value is made. Still a farmer gives something of himself, a carpenter also. In our time professions in crafts are rare and even art is disconnected from labor. But a work of art, be it conceptual or whatever, always is part of the artist. The creator of a work of art always gives something of himself to the public. As with love – some people are everyman’s friend and are able to give out romantic love to different kinds of people, others have very exclusive preferences in interpersonal relations – a work of art can speak to the masses, or to a rare individual. In all cases however, perspective is shared. The spectator, member of the public or audience stretches himself a little to be able to see life (or part of it) from the artist’s perspective. One cannot expect a spectator to go completely out of his way, whereas complete recognition of perspective is mere entertainment (being kept busy, biding one’s time) and not artistic experience.
II. Experiencing art
E. Collective versus individual identity
Entertainment (as diversion from everyday life) and culture (as a body of customs and traditions that make up everyday life) function as means to identify individuals as members or nonmembers of groups. Even when someone deliberately does not follow cultural proscriptions, this ‘act of independence’ serves to maintain a relation to the group, be it a relation of exclusion. Identity is thus defined socially. But identity can also be constructed internally.
Let us think of the difference between religion and spirituality. Religion, like culture, serves as a body of rules and customs which make up a community that differs from other communities. So-called secularized society does not differ greatly from a religious one, what survives is a highly normative collective. As opposed to religion, spirituality and meditation only serve intrinsic purposes. A spiritual person wishes to leave their earthly boundaries behind, to find inner peace and meaningful quietness. A spiritual and holistic connection can be sought after. Meditation is emptiness of the mind; this is different from the meaningful quietness a spiritual person aspires to. But both meditation and spirituality try to overcome rational and self-conscious thinking. The subconscious part of the mind is given room to expand or float.
I would like to propose to call creative outings that speak to people as members of a group not artistic but cultural. To Rancière the psychological difference between individually experienced art and culturally experienced aesthetics might not be relevant, because he is interested in discourse, which is always intersubjective; a collective interplay of (individual) perspective. Emancipation of groups happens trough emancipation of individuals, in which art can play a (decisive) role. In this respect artistic experience is interesting as a source of emancipation. However, I do not primarily want to talk about the social consequences of an individual artistic experience. I want to differentiate the individual experience from the collective one. I am not interested in the emancipation of groups of people, I am interested in the emancipation of individuals from groups.
F. Art and entertainment
A soccer match is not art. The purpose of watching a match is taking part in a concrete collective experience. A royal wedding or national holiday is also concrete collective experience. But even cultural activities like musicals, pop concerts or festivals and attending art exhibitions can be about experiencing an event as a group.
But what about watching a film or reading a book? Although seated in a theatre with a group of people, watching a film can be an individual experience. The relation with the creator(s) of the film is more important than the relation with the other spectators in this respect. Hollywood movies however are aspecific and composed along the lines of formulae. Sometimes five scriptwriters cooperate and often the director has to compromise with powerful producers. These characteristics take mass cinema out of the sphere of personal communication and consequently make it impossible to have a subjective experience. The Hollywood movie has only one dimension and all the spectators are coerced in a singular reading, the same way that propaganda does so. Someone like Stanley Kubrick managed to keep al strings attached and make an artwork of his own. That’s an exception in Hollywood. It can be interesting to examine his project ‘A.I.’, taken on by Steven Spielberg. When at first this is a multi-interpretable film, Spielberg takes is to a more superfluous level that reminds one of Disney’s versions of stories like Pinocchio or Alice in Wonderland. With this the moral also enters the story.
When reading a spontaneous novel that hasn’t been tempered with (too much) by editors, one will probably have an individual experience. Every reader constructs his or her own story. This is made possible by every subconscious aspect the author has put into his work. The story becomes multi-interpretable because it has different dimensions and makes association possible. When a book however is being published to please a crowd, the reading experience will be homogenic and the reader will be coerced into an abstract collective experience.
A work of entertainment most often is a representative of a universal formula. It is reconciling to the public. The experience is not disturbing, it is not dreamlike. Because entertainment comprises formulae, there cannot be a subjective taking in of the parts of the whole. In fact with entertainment there only is fixed parts and no ‘whole’ at all. As with propaganda there is just one dimension. The pictorial, narrative or musical parts have a fixed relation to each other. Sometimes, the aim is only to shock with spectacular imagery and/or sounds. A lot of times moral inducement is the aim of entertaining works. Morals and spectacle sell. With these formular narratives or spectacular impulses one cannot interpret as a subject the different possible relations between the parts. There simply might be no relation between parts (and no meaning to them), or the meanings and relations are already fixed and mono-interpretable. What follows is that the members of the public cannot construct a subjective whole. The spectator is not able to construct meaning as a result of recognizing parts that differ in value of qualitative and quantitative importance, placing these different parts in meaningful relationships. A true work of art invites a spectator to invest parts of him- or herself and in return provides a personal ‘dream’. In this way the presented artwork induces an individual interpretation. This is why art is always original and spontaneous. Art is made by a subject for a subject, not by producers for consumers.
G. Influences on taste in art
The experience of art is individual and dreamlike, the constructing of meaning is an active and subjective process. However, in a lot of cases people talk about their interpretations of an artwork and come to a collective and intersubjective conclusion. They do so because they do not trust their own subjective truths and want to experience a more secure version of truth. This not only influences the meaning of art that is experienced by an individual (although little individual differences in interpretation will persist), it will also influence future experiences. A new chapter is embarked upon with this last notion. What follows is that a spectator is no blank. One has convictions and criteria. If a work of art contradicts matters of taste, that already have been decided upon, a spectator will renounce this artwork. When an artwork has a lot to offer in ways that are not covered by someone’s subjective criteria, qualities will go unnoticed. In other words: when a spectator lacks the experience that has lead to the internalization of criteria to appreciate a work of art, he or she is blind to its merits. These remarks show that I do not propagate naïve artistic experience. I desire that subjective experience should be individually and critically learned and not be tainted by collective ‘truths’. These notions introduce the aspect of the importance of taste to the discussion on the meaning of art as individual experience. Not only intersubjectivity, but also authoritive art critique influences personal experience.
With what we call ‘postmodernism’, art and art critique are mixed up. Warhol created not art but art critique. His imagery could be understood by members of the public merely as popular. In this way his works are entertainment. The deeper meaning of his work is criticizing the art world for being too exclusive. He does so not in an artistic way, by making accessible art, but in a rational way, by posing entertainment as art. Pop art is not democratic or universal art; it is art critique by means of communicating through imagery instead of words. In my opinion artistic creation springs from what Nietzsche calls instinct, Freud’s subconscious. Also one could use the term intuition. All are opposed to ratio. In artistic creativity the rational part of the mind is subdued, subconscious knowing is brought up. Rational creation is not artistic creation. Purely rational art does not exist. Even Piet Mondriaan worked from his intuition of the necessity to reduce visual images to the essence. He did not possess knowledge of composition, but used his (subjective) insights in the matter. He provided his specialized perspective influencing the compositional insights of others.
H. Idolatry or sharing perspective
Experiencing art cannot be about honoring the artist. Experiencing the light that shines from an artistic genius is somewhat religious or merely entertaining. When an artwork is taken to serve as a means to express the personality of the maker, this threatens a subjective and intrinsic receptive experience. If a spectator purposely reaches out through an artwork to get in touch with the creator, artworks become wonders done by a godlike being. Off course it can be interesting to get into a dialogue with another person, being an artist. To see and hear this person’s views on life or society can be illuminating and inspiring. That is: inspiring to form your own ideas, concepts and abstracts. Never should recognizing the ingenious concepts, belonging to one exclusive and artistic mind and thereby glorifying this person, be more important than interpreting his or her works and integrating the impressions in one’s own mind.
If you aim at basking in the light that shines from your idol, you end up living in the shadow of a greater mind.
Part of experiencing art should be like dreaming. Like a person dreaming, someone experiencing an artwork is totally immersed; it doesn’t matter for how long. An instant, when experienced detached from history or future, is a little eternity. Only afterwards interpretation enters the arena and one becomes of a critical mind. Although in some cases interpretation is essential to the artwork and can even be the main aim (of an artist or a member of the public), this secondary part of the art experience, should be looked upon as constructing meaning which only follows being immersed into experience.
Some things can obstruct the true encounter with an artwork. With plays and films, famous actors can detract from the story as a whole. Experiencing awe for an individual performance makes it impossible to ‘dream’. When a well known actor is capable of rendering the public oblivious to his or her person and provides a personage as part of the story, there is a true artistic performance. When an actor on screen or stage is always the same, we tend to even forget the character’s name and instead use the actor’s name when referring to the personage. Then only glorification of the actor (as a superior being) is left as a possible experience.
If, while looking at pieces of fine art or listening to music, the first and foremost thing is recognizing style, one can be entertained in this activity, like when engaging in a quiz and trying to give the right answers. Recognizing personal style or – even worse – interpersonal formulae in narrative, pictorial or musical representatives, is like giving a right answer. It is not constructing an opinion.
“I may be affected by a theatrical exhibition, I may not be affected by an actual event which appears to concern me much more” writes Henry David Thoreau. Artistic experience can be more intense than real-life experience and in this way even more real to the subject.
In this conclusion I will sum up what I distinguished art from. This however only is a negative way to define art. Ultimately I also will positively define art. My definition of art depends on cultural ideas that are common in our time, but it still is a highly subjective insight in the matter. One dominant notion of our time in my definition is the importance of communication. My background is of a primary interest in education. Furthermore, one should already have noticed my approach is non-materialistic. I hope some people experience crystallization of their insights, opinions and ideas. I hope for some it will sharpen the way they relate to art, entertainment and culture. Finally I hope my definition will fuel the debate about the nature and importance of art!
To me art and culture are different things. Culture exists of what binds a group of people. Art can be part of culture in this sense, but is only truly art when every spectator has his own subjective experience.
Canonic art that explicitly belongs to – so called – high culture, art that is incorporated in elitist subculture, is being used as a kind of advertisement to prove the superiority of the group that the artwork honors. This is propaganda. Although artworks from a canon can intrinsically still be multidimensional and multi-interpretable, it becomes propaganda because it is fitted in and used to illustrate a collective story. Canonic art poses a dominant reading: it shows the greatness of the possessors. An individual in a museum can still experience canonic art subjectively, if he or she is emancipated from the collective story that is illustrated by it. In my opinion it is best not to read pamphlets or listen to guides if not very critical!
Art that is cliché, art that leaves no subjective interpretation, can best be seen as propaganda. Entertainment roughly has the same function as canonic art, only in a more obvious paternalistic and coercive way. Socially there is not much difference between them. Although canonic art actually is art (or at least has been art), it is robbed from its plural dimensions and is used as advertisement to prove superior group-quality, mostly encouraging nationalism. It illustrates a collective and misleading one-dimensional story. This falsified story is presented as history. Best example is the illusion of greatness of the Dutch promoted by the superior quality of seventeenth century Dutch painting.
Entertainment also engages groups of people in a one-dimensional story. Often these entertaining stories are moralizing. Entertainment gives people examples of how to live their lives: you should always try your best, you should love ‘thy neighbor’ and even empathize with your enemies. Movies show that you have to be a ‘success’. Protagonists are brave, boisterous and beautiful and spectators should think of themselves in this way, positively or negatively. Entertainment even stimulates ‘splitting’, to discriminate between people that are ‘all bad’ and people that are ‘all good’. Big parts of collective culture are catalyzed through movies and television. The media define group culture.
Although art can be exclusive and difficult to access, whereas other art will be more inclusive and easier to get access to, this is no cultural difference of ‘high’ and ‘low’. Different accessibility only is difference in amount of dimensions and universality of the artworks. Some art might speak to the few, while other art resonances with a massive audience. However, the members of the public will always have to invest to have an artistic experience. The spectator must actively construct his or her own experience or must at least loosen their bindings with (collective) ‘reality’ and embrace an alternative (individual) reality. One must stretch to reach a new perspective. An artistic experience can be compared to standing on one’s toes, stretching one’s neck to be able to get a view over the fence. Confirmation of what we already know is not art. Reconciliation of our perspective is not artistic experience.
A collective experience cannot be an artistic experience, it is always political. On this fundament I will construct my theory of art. In doing so, I have sufficiently opposed art to entertainment. Entertainment makes use of formulae that are intertwined with mass culture and are thus collective. People search diversion in entertainment, without letting go of collective reality, without letting go of themselves. Art is letting go of oneself and reaching for alternatives for collective reality. Art is pure subjectivity. Sometimes senses become more important than ratio, but always senses are primal. Interpretation only follows experience.
Through analyzing experience I came to a definition not only of what it is to experience art, but also what makes something or anything a work of art. Now, to come to the finale and to answer the big question:
Art is perspective shared by subjects.
The subject is the individual that has constructed an own identity separate from groups. The subject has personal views and insights; a personal taste and interpretation in culture. The subject is not immersed in collectivity. The subject is emancipated.
Perspective is a personal point of view on the world; on nature and on culture; on society and individuals; on beliefs, truths and other stories. Ideas that influence perspective are notions of context. Insights take place in context along criteria to evaluate experiences.
Art in my definition is about communication. Art provides to the subject new ways of communicating, these are the formal aspect of art. Art moreover provides to the subject new ways of ‘looking’ at reality. Perspective provides the content of an artwork. An artwork is a multi-interpretable message.
Agamben, Giorgio (1978 ) Infancy and History. Verso 2007.
Carrol, Noël ed. (2000) Theories of art today. The University of Wisconsin Press 2000.
Darnton, Robert (1982) The Literary Underground of the Old Regime. Harvard University Press 1982.
Debord, Guy (1967) De Spektakelmaatschappij. De Dolle Hond 2007.
Fromm, Erich (1941) De angst voor vrijheid. Bijleveld 1999.
Gombrich, E.H. (1960) Art&Illusion. A study in the psychology of pictorial representation. Phaidon 2002.
Graham, Gordon (1997) Philosophy of the arts. An introduction to aesthetics. Routledge 2000.
Laclau, Ernesto (1996) Emancipation(s). Verso 2007.
Nietzsche, Friedrich (1886) Die Geburt der Tragödie. KSA I. De Gruyter 1999.
Rancière, Jacques (2000) Het delen van het zintuiglijk waarneembare – esthetiek en politiek.
In: Het Esthetische denken. Valiz 2007.
Rancière, Jacques (2001) Het esthetisch onbewuste.
In: Het Esthetische denken. Valiz 2007.
Rancière, Jacques (1983) De onwetende meester. Vijf lessen over intellectuele emancipatie. Acco 2007.
Sloterdijk, Peter (1989) Eurotaoismus. Zur Kritik der politischen Kinetik. Suhrkamp 1989.
Thoreau, Henry David (1854) Walden. Barnes & Noble Classics 2003.